Jump to content

Five Eyes

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Five Eyes (disambiguation).
"FVEY" redirects here. For the album, see FVEY (album).

Five Eyes
Members shown in blue
Members shown in blue
Working languageEnglish
TypeIntelligence alliance
Members
Establishment
August 14, 1941; 83 years ago (1941-08-14)
May 17, 1943; 81 years ago (1943-05-17)
NSA Headquarters, Fort Meade, Maryland, United States
ASIO central office, Canberra, Australia
GCHQ, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, United Kingdom
CSE Headquarters, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
NZSIS Headquarters, Wellington, New Zealand

The Five Eyes (FVEY) is an Anglosphere intelligence alliance comprising Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States.[1] These countries are party to the multilateral UK-USA Agreement, a treaty for joint cooperation in signals intelligence.[2][3][4] Informally, "Five Eyes" can refer to the group of intelligence agencies of these countries. The term "Five Eyes" originated as shorthand for a "AUS/CAN/NZ/UK/US EYES ONLY" (AUSCANNZUKUS) releasability caveat.[5]

The origins of the FVEY can be traced to informal, secret meetings during World War II between British and American code-breakers which took place before the US formally entered the war.[6] The alliance was formalized in the post-war era by the UKUSA Agreement in 1946. As the Cold War deepened, the intelligence sharing arrangement was formalised under the ECHELON surveillance system in the 1960s.[7] This system was developed by the FVEY to monitor the communications of the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc; it is now used to monitor communications worldwide.[8][9] The FVEY expanded its surveillance capabilities during the course of the "war on terror", with much emphasis placed on monitoring the Internet. The alliance has grown into a robust global surveillance mechanism, adapting to new domains such as international terrorism, cyberattacks, and contemporary regional conflicts.

The alliance's activities, often shrouded in secrecy, have occasionally come under scrutiny for their implications on privacy and civil liberties, sparking debates and legal challenges. In the late 1990s, the existence of ECHELON was disclosed to the public, triggering a debate in the European Parliament and, to a lesser extent, the United States Congress and British Parliament. Former NSA contractor Edward Snowden described the Five Eyes as a "supra-national intelligence organisation that does not answer to the known laws of its own countries".[10] 2010s global surveillance disclosures revealed FVEY was spying on one another's citizens and sharing the collected information with each other, although the FVEY nations maintain this was done legally.[11][12]

Five Eyes is among the most comprehensive espionage alliances.[13] Since processed intelligence is gathered from multiple sources, the information shared is not restricted to signals intelligence (SIGINT) and often involves military intelligence (MILINT), human intelligence (HUMINT), and geospatial intelligence (GEOINT). Five Eyes remains a key element in the intelligence and security landscape of each member country, providing them a strategic advantage in understanding and responding to global events.

Organisations

[edit]

The following table provides an overview of most of the FVEY agencies which share data.[2]

Main agencies sharing data as part of Five Eyes alliance, by country
Country Agency Abbreviation Role[2]
Australia Australian Secret Intelligence Service ASIS Human intelligence
Australian Signals Directorate ASD Signal intelligence
Australian Security Intelligence Organisation ASIO Security intelligence
Australian Geospatial-Intelligence Organisation AGO Geo intelligence
Defence Intelligence Organisation DIO Defence intelligence
Canada Canadian Forces Intelligence Command CFINTCOM Defence intelligence, geo intelligence, human intelligence
Communications Security Establishment CSE Signal intelligence
Canadian Security Intelligence Service CSIS Human intelligence, security intelligence
Royal Canadian Mounted Police RCMP Security intelligence
New Zealand Directorate of Defence Intelligence and Security DDIS Defence intelligence
Government Communications Security Bureau GCSB Signal intelligence
New Zealand Security Intelligence Service NZSIS Human intelligence, security intelligence
United Kingdom Defence Intelligence DI Defence intelligence
Government Communications Headquarters GCHQ Signal intelligence
Security Service MI5 Security intelligence
Secret Intelligence Service MI6, SIS Human intelligence
United States Central Intelligence Agency CIA Human intelligence
Defense Intelligence Agency DIA Defense intelligence
Federal Bureau of Investigation FBI Security intelligence
National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency NGA Geo intelligence
National Security Agency NSA Signal intelligence

History

[edit]

Origins (1941–1950s)

[edit]
The cover page of the first version of the secret UKUSA Agreement in 1946, which was disclosed to the public in 2011

The informal origins of the Five Eyes alliance were secret meetings between British and US code-breakers at the British code-breaking establishment Bletchley Park in February 1941, before the US entry into the war.[14] The first record of these meetings is a February 1941 diary entry from Alastair Denniston, head of Bletchley Park, reading "The Ys are coming!" with "Ys" referring to "Yanks". An entry from 10 February reads "Ys arrive". British and US intelligence shared extremely confidential information, including that the British had broken the German Enigma code and that the US had broken the Japanese Purple code. For the rest of the war, key figures like Denniston and code-breaking expert Alan Turing travelled back and forth across the Atlantic. The informal relationship established for wartime signals intelligence developed into a formal, signed agreement at the start of the Cold War.[15]

The formal Five Eyes alliance can be traced back to the August 1941 Atlantic Charter which laid out Allied goals for the post-war world. On 17 May 1943, the UK and US governments signed the British–US Communication Intelligence Agreement, also known as the BRUSA Agreement, to facilitate co-operation between the US War Department and the British Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS). On 5 March 1946, the two governments formalized their secret treaty as the UKUSA Agreement, the basis for all signal intelligence cooperation between the NSA and GCHQ up to the present.[16][17]

UKUSA was extended to include Canada in 1948, followed by Norway in 1952, Denmark in 1954, West Germany in 1955, and Australia and New Zealand in 1956.[17] These countries participated in the alliance as "third parties". By 1955, a newer version of the UKUSA Agreement officially acknowledged the formal status of the remaining Five Eyes countries with the following statement:

At this time only Canada, Australia and New Zealand will be regarded as UKUSA-collaborating Commonwealth countries.[17]

Cold War

[edit]

During the Cold War, GCHQ and the NSA shared intelligence on the Soviet Union, China, and several eastern European countries known as "Exotics".[18] Over the course of several decades, the ECHELON surveillance network was developed to monitor the military and diplomatic communications of the Soviet Union and its Eastern Bloc allies.[19]

In 1953, SIS and the CIA jointly orchestrated the overthrow of Iran's Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh.[20][21][22][23]

From 1955 through 1975 during the Vietnam War, Australian and New Zealander operators in the Asia-Pacific region worked to directly support the United States while GCHQ operators stationed in British Hong Kong as part of GCHQ Hong Kong were tasked with monitoring North Vietnamese air defence networks.[24][25]

In 1961, SIS and the CIA jointly orchestrated the assassination of the Congolese independence leader Patrice Lumumba, an operation authorized by out-going US President Dwight D. Eisenhower the year before in 1960.[26][27][28]

In 1973, the ASIS and the CIA jointly orchestrated the overthrow of Chile's President Salvador Allende.[29][30][31][32]

Over a period of at least five years in the 1970s, a senior officer named Ian George Peacock, who was in the counterespionage unit of Australia's ASIO, stole highly classified intelligence documents which had been shared with Australia and sold them to the Soviet Union. Peacock held the title of supervisor-E (espionage) and had top-secret security clearance. He retired from the ASIO in 1983 and died in 2006.[33]

During the Falklands War in 1982, the United Kingdom received intelligence data from its FVEY allies as well as from third parties like Norway and France.[34][35][36]

In 1989, during the Tiananmen Square protests, SIS and the CIA took part in Operation Yellowbird to exfiltrate dissidents from China.[37]

In the aftermath of the Gulf War in 1991, an ASIS technician bugged Kuwaiti government offices for SIS.[35]

ECHELON network disclosures (1972–2000)

[edit]

By the end of the 20th century, the FVEY members had developed the ECHELON surveillance network into a global system capable of collecting massive amounts of private and commercial communications including telephone calls, fax, email, and other data traffic. The network's information comes from intercepted communication bearers such as satellite transmissions and public switched telephone networks.[38]

Two of the FVEY information collection mechanisms are the PRISM program and the Upstream collection system. The PRISM program gathers user information from technology firms such as Google, Apple, and Microsoft; while the Upstream system gathers information directly from civilian communications as they travel through infrastructure like fiber cables.[39] The program was first disclosed to the public in 1972 when a former NSA communications analyst reported to Ramparts magazine that the Agency had developed technology that "could crack all Soviet codes".[40]

In a 1988 piece in the New Statesman called "Somebody's listening", Duncan Campbell revealed the existence of ECHELON, an extension of the UKUSA Agreement on global signals intelligence. The story detailed how eavesdropping operations were not only being employed in the interests of 'national security,' but were regularly abused for corporate espionage in the service of US business interests.[41] The piece passed largely unnoticed outside of journalism circles.[42]

In 1996, New Zealand journalist Nicky Hager provided a detailed description of ECHELON in a book titled Secret Power – New Zealand's Role in the International Spy Network. The European Parliament cited the book in a 1998 report titled "An Appraisal of the Technology of Political Control" (PE 168.184).[43] On 16 March 2000, the Parliament called for a resolution on the Five Eyes and its ECHELON surveillance network which would have called for the "complete dismantling of ECHELON".[44]

Three months later, the European Parliament established the Temporary Committee on ECHELON to investigate the ECHELON surveillance network. However, according to a number of European politicians such as Esko Seppänen of Finland, the European Commission hindered these investigations .[45]

In the United States, congressional legislators warned that the ECHELON system could be used to monitor US citizens.[46] On 14 May 2001, the US government cancelled all meetings with the Temporary Committee on ECHELON.[47] According to a BBC report from May 2001, "The US Government still refuses to admit that Echelon even exists."[19]

War on Terror (since 2001)

[edit]
See also: Global surveillance

In the aftermath of the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, Five Eyes members greatly increased their surveillance capabilities as part of the global war on terror.

During the run-up to the Iraq War, the communications of UN weapons inspector Hans Blix were monitored by the Five Eyes.[48][49] Around the same time, British agents bugged the office of UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan.[50][51] An NSA memo detailed Five Eyes plans to increase surveillance on the UN delegations of six countries as part of a "dirty tricks" campaign to pressure these six countries to vote in favour of using force against Iraq.[50][52][53]

SIS and the CIA forged a surveillance partnership with Libya's leader Muammar Gaddafi to spy on Libyan dissidents in the West in exchange for permission to use Libya as a base for extraordinary renditions.[54][55][56][57][58]

As of 2010, Five Eyes-affiliated agencies also have access to SIPRNet, the US government's classified version of the Internet.[59]

In 2013, documents leaked by the former NSA contractor Edward Snowden revealed the existence of numerous surveillance programs jointly operated by the Five Eyes. The following list includes several notable examples reported in the media:

In March 2014, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) ordered Australia to stop spying on East Timor. This marks the first such restrictions imposed on a member of the FVEY.[67]

Competition with China (since 2018)

[edit]

On 1 December 2018, Canadian authorities arrested Meng Wanzhou, a Huawei executive, at Vancouver International Airport to face charges of fraud and conspiracy in the United States.[68] China responded by arresting two Canadian nationals. According to the South China Morning Post, analysts saw this conflict as the beginning of a direct clash between China's government and governments of the Five Eyes alliance.[69] In the months that followed, the United States restricted technology exchanges with China.[70] The newspaper reported that these events were seen by Beijing as a "fight ... waged with the world’s oldest intelligence alliance, the Five Eyes."[71]

Starting in 2019, Australian parliamentarians as well as US Secretary of State Mike Pompeo prompted the United Kingdom not to use Huawei technology in its 5G network.[72] In 2021, the UK Government announced it no longer planned to use Huawei's 5G technology.[73]

In November 2020, the Five Eyes alliance criticised China's rules disqualifying elected legislators in Hong Kong.[74]

In mid-April 2021, the New Zealand Foreign Minister Nanaia Mahuta issued a statement that New Zealand would not let the Five Eyes alliance dictate its bilateral relationship with China and that New Zealand was uncomfortable with expanding the remit of the intelligence grouping. In response, the Australian Government expressed concern that Wellington was undermining collective efforts to combat what it regarded as Chinese aggression.[75][76] New Zealand Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern echoed Mahuta's remarks and claimed that while New Zealand was still committed to the Five Eyes alliance, it would not use the network as its first point of communication for non-security matters. While The Telegraph's defence editor Con Coughlin and British Conservative Member of Parliament Bob Seely criticised New Zealand for undermining the Five Eyes' efforts to present a united front against Beijing, the Chinese Global Times praised New Zealand for putting its own national interests over the Five Eyes.[77][78][79] Following the 2023 New Zealand general election, the new New Zealand Foreign Minister and Deputy Prime Minister Winston Peters promised closer cooperation with Five Eyes partners.[80]

In late April 2021, the Global Times reported that China's Ministry of State Security will monitor employees of companies and organisations considered to be at risk of foreign infiltration while they travel to the Five Eyes countries. These employees will be required to report their travel destinations, agendas, and meetings with foreign personnel to Chinese authorities. Other security measures include undergoing "pre-departure spying education", and using different electronic devices while at home and while abroad.[81][82]

In mid-December 2021, the United States Secretary of State; the Foreign Ministers of Australia, Canada, and New Zealand; and the UK Foreign Secretary issued a joint statement criticising the exclusion of opposition candidates by Hong Kong national security law and urging China to respect human rights and freedoms in Hong Kong in accordance with the Sino-British Joint Declaration.[83][84] In response, the Chinese Government claimed the Hong Kong elections were fair and criticised the Five Eyes for interfering in Hong Kong's domestic affairs.[85][86]

2023 meeting

[edit]

The Five Eyes leaders held their first known public meeting[87] at Stanford University's Hoover Institution[88] in California in the US. They had been meeting privately nearby in Palo Alto. Present were:

They made public statements on topics such as the death in Canada of Hardeep Singh Nijjar[88] and Chinese state-backed hackers.[87]

Domestic espionage sharing controversy

[edit]

The Five Eyes alliance is sort of an artifact of the post World War II era where the Anglophone countries are the major powers banded together to sort of co-operate and share the costs of intelligence gathering infrastructure. ... The result of this was over decades and decades some sort of a supra-national intelligence organisation that doesn't answer to the laws of its own countries.

—Edward Snowden[10]

One of the Five Eyes' core principles is that members do not spy on other governments in the alliance. US Director of National Intelligence Admiral Dennis C. Blair said in 2013, "We do not spy on each other. We just ask."[90]

However, in recent years, FVEY documents have shown that member agencies are intentionally spying on one another's private citizens and sharing the collected information with each other.[11][91] Shami Chakrabarti, director of the advocacy group Liberty, claimed that the FVEY alliance increases the ability of member states to "subcontract their dirty work" to each other.[92] FVEY countries maintain that all intelligence sharing is done legally, according to the domestic law of the respective nations.[93][12][94]

As a result of Snowden's disclosures, the FVEY alliance has become the subject of a growing amount of controversy in parts of the world:

  • In late 2013, Canadian federal judge Richard Mosley strongly rebuked the CSIS for outsourcing its surveillance of Canadians to overseas partner agencies. A 51-page court ruling asserts that the CSIS and other Canadian federal agencies have been illegally enlisting FVEY allies in global surveillance dragnets, while keeping domestic federal courts in the dark.[95][96][97]
  • In 2014, New Zealand's Parliament asked the NZSIS and the GCSB if they had received any monetary contributions from members of the FVEY alliance. Neither agency responded to these inquiries, instead stating that they do not collect metadata on New Zealanders. David Cunliffe, leader of the Labour Party, asserted that the public is entitled to be informed of foreign funding if the disclosure does not compromise the agencies' operations.[98]
  • In early 2014, the European Parliament's Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs released a report which confirmed that the intelligence agencies of New Zealand and Canada have cooperated with the NSA under the Five Eyes programme and may have been actively sharing the personal data of EU citizens. The EU report did not investigate if any international or domestic US laws were broken by the US and did not claim that any FVEY nation was illegally conducting intelligence collection on the EU. The NSA maintains that any intelligence collection done on the EU was in accordance with domestic US law and international law.[99][100]
  • In 2013, the British Parliament's Intelligence and Security Committee (ISC) conducted an investigation and concluded that the GCHQ had broken no domestic British laws in its use of data gathered through the NSA's PRISM. According to the ISC report, The GCHQ provided documents which "conformed with GCHQ's statutory duties" and authority as established by the Intelligence Services Act 1994. Requests made to the US corresponded with extant warrants for interception in accordance with the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000. The ISC also questioned whether the UK's legal framework was sufficient.[101]
  • As of April 2024, no court case has been brought against any US intelligence community member claiming that they went around US domestic law by soliciting foreign countries to spy on US citizens and give that intelligence to the US. This may change as attention is paid to the anticipated public releases regarding Operation Lobos 1, Operation Trojan Shield, and Project Habitance. These operations received information from foreign governments for spying on US citizens. The FBI did initiate Operation Trojan Shield which was illegal in the US and so relied on the Australian government. 17 U.S. citizens have been charged in U.S. federal court between 2021 and 2024, but none of the cases as of April 2024 had proceeded past the initial pretrial stages.[clarification needed][citation needed]

Other international cooperatives

[edit]

Beginning with its founding by the United States and United Kingdom in 1946, the alliance expanded twice, inducting Canada in 1948 and Australia and New Zealand in 1956, establishing the Five Eyes as it is today. Additionally, there are nations termed "Third Party Partners" that share their intelligence with the Five Eyes despite not being formal members. While the Five Eyes is rooted in a particular agreement with specific operations among the five nations, similar sharing agreements have been set up independently and for specific purposes; for example, according to Edward Snowden, the NSA has a "massive body" called the Foreign Affairs Directorate dedicated to partnering with foreign countries beyond the alliance.[102][103][104]

Six Eyes (proposed)

[edit]

Several countries have been prospective members of the Five Eyes. Israel,[105] Singapore, South Korea,[106] and Japan have collaborated or continue to collaborate with the alliance, though none are formally members.[107] According to French news magazine L'Obs, in 2009, the United States propositioned France to join the treaty and form a subsequent "Six Eyes" alliance. The French President at the time, Nicolas Sarkozy, requested that France have the same status as the other members, including the signing of a "no-spy agreement". This proposal was approved by the director of the NSA, but rejected by the director of the CIA and by President Barack Obama, resulting in a refusal from France.[108]

New York magazine reported in 2013 that Germany was interested in joining the Five Eyes alliance.[109][110] At the time, several members of the United States Congress, including Tim Ryan and Charles Dent, were pushing for Germany's entrance to the Five Eyes alliance.[111]

Five Eyes Plus

[edit]

As of 2018 through an initiative sometimes termed "Five Eyes Plus 3", Five Eyes has agreements with France, Germany, and Japan to introduce an information-sharing framework to counter China and Russia.[112][113] Five Eyes plus France, Japan and South Korea share information about North Korea's military activities, including ballistic missiles, in an arrangement sometimes dubbed "Five Eyes Plus".[114]

Nine Eyes

[edit]
A map of the Nine Eyes countries

The Nine Eyes is a different group that consists of the Five Eyes members as well as Denmark, France, the Netherlands, and Norway.[103][104]

Fourteen Eyes

[edit]
A map of the Fourteen Eyes countries

According to a document leaked by Edward Snowden, there is another working agreement among 14 nations officially known as "SIGINT Seniors Europe", or "SSEUR".[115] This "14 Eyes" group consists of the Nine Eyes members plus Belgium, Germany, Italy, Spain, and Sweden.[103][104]

Further intelligence sharing collaborations

[edit]

As Privacy International explains, there are a number of issue-specific intelligence agreements which include some or all of the above nations and numerous others, such as:[116][117]

  • An area-specific sharing agreement among 41 nations including the 14 Eyes and the international coalition in Afghanistan.
  • A "focused cooperation" on computer network exploitation between the Five Eyes nations and Austria, Belgium, Czechia, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and Turkey.
  • The Club de Berne with 17, primarily European members.
  • The Counterterrorist Group, a wider membership than the 17 European states that make up the Club of Berne, including the United States.
  • Maximator, an intelligence alliance between Denmark, Germany, France, the Netherlands, and Sweden.[118]
  • The NATO Special Committee made up of the heads of the security services of NATO's 32 member countries.[citation needed]

See also

[edit]

International relations

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Five Eyes Intelligence Oversight and Review Council (FIORC)". www.dni.gov. Archived from the original on 21 January 2021. Retrieved 5 June 2020.
  2. ^ a b c Cox, James (December 2012). "Canada and the Five Eyes Intelligence Community" (PDF). Canadian Defence and Foreign Affairs Institute. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 September 2015. Retrieved 24 July 2016.
  3. ^ "Five Eyes". United States Army Combined Arms Center. Archived from the original on 2 February 2014. Retrieved 18 January 2014.
  4. ^ "PKI Interoperability with FVEY Partner Nations on the NIPRNet". United States Department of the Navy. Archived from the original on 1 February 2014. Retrieved 18 January 2014.
  5. ^ Cox, James (December 2012). "Canada and the Five Eyes Intelligence Community" (PDF). Canadian Defence and Foreign Affairs Institute. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 December 2013.
  6. ^ Vucetic, Srdjan (April 2020). "CANZUK: Fantasy or potential reality?: CANZUK anyone?". Diplomat & International Canada (Spring 2020). Archived from the original on 21 April 2024. Retrieved 21 April 2024.
  7. ^ "Five Eyes and the Perils of an Asymmetric Alliance – AIIA". Australian Institute of International Affairs. Archived from the original on 10 April 2021. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
  8. ^ Asser, Martin (6 July 2000). "Echelon: Big brother without a cause?". BBC News. Archived from the original on 25 January 2014. Retrieved 28 January 2014.
  9. ^ "Q&A: What you need to know about Echelon". BBC News. 29 May 2001. Archived from the original on 18 December 2013. Retrieved 28 January 2014.
  10. ^ a b "Snowden-Interview: Transcript". Norddeutscher Rundfunk. 26 January 2014. Archived from the original on 28 January 2014. Retrieved 28 January 2014.
  11. ^ a b Ball, James (20 November 2013). "US and UK struck secret deal to allow NSA to 'unmask' Britons' personal data". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 20 January 2014. Retrieved 18 January 2014.
  12. ^ a b British spy agency taps cables, shares with U.S. NSA – Guardian Archived 2014-01-25 at the Wayback Machine, Reuters, 21 June 2013. Retrieved 18 January 2014.
  13. ^ Perry, Nick; Dodds, Paisley (17 July 2013). "5-nation spy alliance too vital for leaks to harm". AP News. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 21 April 2024. Retrieved 21 April 2024.
  14. ^ Kerbaj, Richard (2022). The Secret History of Five Eyes: The untold story of the shadowy international spy network, through its targets, traitors and spies. London: John Blake. pp. 54–55. ISBN 9781789465037.
  15. ^ Corera, Gordon (5 March 2021). "Diary reveals birth of secret UK-US spy pact that grew into Five Eyes". BBC News. Archived from the original on 5 March 2021. Retrieved 5 March 2021.
  16. ^ Farrell, Paul (2 December 2013). "History of 5-Eyes – explainer". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
  17. ^ a b c Norton-Taylor, Richard (25 June 2010). "Not so secret: deal at the heart of UK-US intelligence". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 5 December 2013. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
  18. ^ Aldrich, Richard (24 June 2010). "Allied code-breakers co-operate – but not always". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 15 September 2013. Retrieved 25 June 2010.
  19. ^ a b Ward, Mark (29 May 2001). "Q&A: What you need to know about Echelon". BBC News. Archived from the original on 18 December 2013. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
  20. ^ Sanchez, Raf (19 August 2013). "British diplomats tried to suppress details of SIS role in Iran coup". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 28 August 2013. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
  21. ^ Risen, James (16 April 2000). "Secrets Of History: The C.I.A. in Iran—A special report. How a Plot Convulsed Iran in '53 (and in '79)". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 25 September 2013. Retrieved 22 August 2013.
  22. ^ "Declassified Documents Reveal CIA Role In 1953 Iranian Coup". NPR. 1 September 2013. Archived from the original on 25 January 2014. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
  23. ^ Merica, Dan (20 August 2013). "In declassified document, CIA acknowledges role in '53 Iran coup". CNN. Archived from the original on 17 January 2014. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
  24. ^ Norton-Taylor, Richard (19 June 2010). "GCHQ by Richard Aldrich, Securing the State by David Omand". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 3 February 2014. Retrieved 30 January 2014. The US was especially keen on GCHQ's station in Hong Kong, particularly during the Vietnam war
  25. ^ Campbell, Duncan (25 July 2000). "Inside Echelon". Heise Online. Archived from the original on 26 January 2014. Retrieved 19 December 2013.
  26. ^ Corera, Gordon (2 April 2013). "MI6 and the death of Patrice Lumumba". BBC. Archived from the original on 2 November 2013. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
  27. ^ DeYoung, Karen; Walter Pincus (27 June 2007). "CIA Releases Files On Past Misdeeds". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 21 January 2014. Retrieved 2 February 2014. A one-paragraph memo recounts planning for a "project involving the assassination of Patrice Lumumba, then premier of the Republic of Congo.
  28. ^ "CIA details Cold War skulduggery". BBC. 26 June 2007. Archived from the original on 19 February 2014. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
  29. ^ McDonald, Hamish (12 December 2006). "Canberra's furtive aid in overthrowing Allende". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 9 June 2014. Retrieved 30 January 2014.
  30. ^ Suich, Max (20 March 2010). "Spymaster stirs spectre of covert foreign activities". The Australian. Archived from the original on 2 April 2011. Retrieved 30 January 2014.
  31. ^ Herbert, David. "Questions over Australian involvement in Chile coup". Special Broadcasting Service. Archived from the original on 4 February 2014. Retrieved 30 January 2014.
  32. ^ "The Other 9/11". Special Broadcasting Service. Archived from the original on 4 February 2014. Retrieved 30 January 2014.
  33. ^ Neighbour, Sally; O'Neill, Margot (19 June 2023). "The traitor". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 6 July 2023. Retrieved 6 July 2023.
  34. ^ Jones, George (13 March 2002). "How France helped us win Falklands war". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 7 April 2018. Retrieved 5 April 2018.
  35. ^ a b Milliken, Robert (23 February 1994). "Canberra spy link to MI6 alleged". The Independent. Archived from the original on 8 January 2018. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
  36. ^ "Norsk lyttestasjon viktig brikke i Falklandskrigen" (in Norwegian). Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation. 21 May 2002. Archived from the original on 29 June 2009.
  37. ^ Anderlini, Jamil (1 June 2014). "Tiananmen Square: the long shadow". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 6 June 2014. Retrieved 2 June 2014. The extraction missions, aided by MI6, the UK's Secret Intelligence Service, and the CIA, according to many accounts, had scrambler devices, infrared signallers, night-vision goggles and weapons.
  38. ^ Schmid, Gerhard (11 July 2001). "On the existence of a global system for the interception of private and commercial communications (ECHELON interception system), (2001/2098(INI))". European Parliament: Temporary Committee on the ECHELON Interception System. Archived from the original (PDF – 194 pages) on 26 December 2013. Retrieved 5 January 2013.
  39. ^ "NSA slides explain the PRISM data-collection program". The Washington Post. 10 July 2013. Archived from the original on 15 March 2014. Retrieved 6 March 2021.
  40. ^ "Ex-Code Analyst Explains His Aim". The New York Times. 19 July 1972. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 8 December 2019. Retrieved 8 December 2019.
  41. ^ Campbell, Duncan (12 August 1988), "Somebody's Listening", New Statesman, archived from the original on 20 April 2013, retrieved 6 September 2013
  42. ^ Campbell, Duncan. "duncancampbell.org". Duncan Campbell.org. Archived from the original on 28 September 2015. Retrieved 27 September 2015.
  43. ^ "An Appraisal of the Technology of Political Control". European Parliament. Archived from the original on 17 April 1999. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
  44. ^ "European Parliament resolution on Echelon". European Parliament. 16 March 2000. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
  45. ^ "Echelon and the European Parliament". European Parliament. Archived from the original on 9 December 2013. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
  46. ^ McKay, Niall (27 May 1999). "Lawmakers Raise Questions About International Spy Network". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 30 January 2013. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
  47. ^ Campbell, Duncan (1 June 2001). "Echelon Chronology". Heise Online. Archived from the original on 21 December 2013. Retrieved 19 December 2013.
  48. ^ Kim Sengupta; Kathy Marks (29 February 2004). "Blix secrets shared with NZ – reports". The New Zealand Herald. Archived from the original on 13 December 2013. Retrieved 7 December 2013.
  49. ^ Tom Allard; Andrew Darby; Marian Wilkinson (28 February 2004). "Australian spy circle tied to UN bugging". The New Zealand Herald. Archived from the original on 3 November 2013. Retrieved 7 December 2013.
  50. ^ a b "UK bugged Annan's office, says former minister". The Sydney Morning Herald. 27 February 2004. Archived from the original on 23 May 2014. Retrieved 18 January 2014.
  51. ^ "UK 'spied on UN's Kofi Annan'". BBC. February 2004. Archived from the original on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
  52. ^ "Revealed: US dirty tricks to win vote on Iraq war". The Observer. 2 March 2003. Archived from the original on 11 January 2018. Retrieved 18 January 2014.
  53. ^ Bright, Martin (3 March 2013). "Katharine Gun: Ten years on what happened to the woman who revealed dirty tricks on the UN Iraq war vote?". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2 February 2014. Retrieved 18 January 2014.
  54. ^ Wedeman, Ben (3 September 2011). "Documents shed light on CIA, Gadhafi spy ties". CNN. Archived from the original on 10 November 2012. Retrieved 3 September 2011.
  55. ^ "Libya: Gaddafi regime's US-UK spy links revealed". BBC. 4 September 2011. Archived from the original on 24 December 2013. Retrieved 20 December 2013.
  56. ^ Abigail Hauslohner (2 September 2011). "How Libya Seems to Have Helped the CIA with Rendition of Terrorism Suspects". Time. Archived from the original on 21 December 2013. Retrieved 20 December 2013.
  57. ^ "Files show MI6, CIA ties to Libya: reports". The Sydney Morning Herald. 4 September 2011. Archived from the original on 3 November 2011. Retrieved 4 September 2011.
  58. ^ Spencer, Richard (3 September 2011). "Libya: secret dossier reveals Gaddafi's UK spy links". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 4 September 2011. Retrieved 3 September 2011.
  59. ^ Field, Michael (2 December 2010). "NZ way down the WikiLeaks queue". Fairfax New Zealand. Archived from the original on 5 December 2010. Retrieved 17 December 2010.
  60. ^ Nick Hopkins (7 June 2013). "UK gathering secret intelligence via covert NSA operation". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2 March 2016. Retrieved 22 December 2013.
  61. ^ Philip Dorling (13 June 2013). "Australia gets 'deluge' of US secret data, prompting a new data facility". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 23 November 2013. Retrieved 22 December 2013.
  62. ^ Philip Dorling (8 July 2013). "Snowden reveals Australia's links to US spy web". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 10 August 2013. Retrieved 8 July 2013.
  63. ^ Nick Hopkins and Julian Borger (1 August 2013). "Exclusive: NSA pays £100m in secret funding for GCHQ". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 25 January 2014. Retrieved 22 December 2013.
  64. ^ Williams, Rob (2 August 2013). "Americans pay GCHQ £100m to spy for them, leaked NSA papers from Edward Snowden claim". The Independent. Archived from the original on 12 January 2014. Retrieved 31 December 2013.
  65. ^ Gellman, Barton; Soltani, Ashkan; Peterson, Andrea (4 November 2013). "How we know the NSA had access to internal Google and Yahoo cloud data". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 4 February 2016. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
  66. ^ "Photo Gallery: Spies in the Embassy". Der Spiegel. Archived from the original on 24 February 2014. Retrieved 22 December 2013.
  67. ^ Allard, Tom (4 March 2014). "Australia ordered to cease spying on East Timor by International Court of Justice". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 3 March 2014. Retrieved 4 March 2014.
  68. ^ "Meng Wanzhou: Questions over Huawei executive's arrest as legal battle continues". BBC News. 31 October 2020. Archived from the original on 6 December 2020. Retrieved 22 November 2020.
  69. ^ "China in brace position as Five Eyes form united front". South China Morning Post. 14 June 2020. Archived from the original on 4 January 2021. Retrieved 22 November 2020.
  70. ^ Swanson, Ana (23 October 2019). "Trump Officials Battle Over Plan to Keep Technology Out of Chinese Hands (Published 2019)". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 22 November 2020.
  71. ^ "Why is the Five Eyes intelligence alliance in China's cross hairs?". South China Morning Post. 20 June 2020. Archived from the original on 24 January 2021. Retrieved 22 November 2020.
  72. ^ Bourke, Latika (7 February 2020). "Australian MP delivers stunning rebuke to UK's Dominic Raab on Huawei". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 18 January 2021. Retrieved 22 November 2020.
  73. ^ Heather Stewart Political (21 July 2020). "Mike Pompeo praises UK decision to remove Huawei from 5G network". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 6 December 2020. Retrieved 22 November 2020.
  74. ^ "Hong Kong: 'Five Eyes could be blinded,' China warns West". BBC News. 19 November 2020. Archived from the original on 4 December 2020. Retrieved 20 November 2020.
  75. ^ "New Zealand says it will set China policy, not US-led Five Eyes". Al Jazeera. 19 April 2021. Archived from the original on 21 April 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
  76. ^ Galloway, Anthony (22 April 2021). "Australia was blindsided when Five Eyes ally New Zealand backed away from China criticism". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 21 April 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
  77. ^ Young, Audrey (21 April 2021). "NZ-China relations: Jacinda Ardern faces bitter attack by UK writer over Five Eyes commitment". The New Zealand Herald. Archived from the original on 21 April 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
  78. ^ Bourke, Latika (23 April 2021). "Jacinda Ardern savaged as British Parliament declares treatment of Uyghurs 'genocide'". Stuff. Archived from the original on 22 April 2021. Retrieved 23 April 2021.
  79. ^ Ensor, Jamie (21 April 2021). "China heaps praise on Nanaia Mahuta's 'remarkable' Five Eyes comments". Newshub. Archived from the original on 21 April 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
  80. ^ "New Zealand foreign minister seeks closer ties with Five Eyes powers". Reuters. 11 December 2023. Retrieved 18 October 2024.
  81. ^ "China announces measures to prevent foreign spying in companies". The Straits Times. 27 April 2021. Archived from the original on 27 April 2021. Retrieved 29 May 2021.
  82. ^ Small, Zane (27 April 2021). "China imposes strict anti-espionage measures on staff visiting New Zealand, Five Eyes nations". Newshub. Archived from the original on 27 April 2021. Retrieved 29 May 2021.
  83. ^ "Joint Statement on Hong Kong Legislative Council Elections". United States Department of State. 20 December 2021. Archived from the original on 21 December 2021. Retrieved 22 December 2021.
  84. ^ "Hong Kong elections spark G7, EU, Five Eyes condemnation". South China Morning Post. 21 December 2021. Archived from the original on 21 December 2021. Retrieved 21 December 2021.
  85. ^ "China accuses New Zealand and Five Eyes of interference over criticism of Hong Kong legislative elections". Radio New Zealand. 22 December 2021. Archived from the original on 22 December 2021. Retrieved 22 December 2021.
  86. ^ Hurst, Daniel; Ni, Vincent (21 December 2021). "China accuses Australia of 'violent' interference in Five Eyes response to Hong Kong election". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 21 December 2021. Retrieved 22 December 2021.
  87. ^ a b China: Five Eyes Leaders Warn of China's Intellectual Property Theft Program Archived 20 October 2023 at the Wayback Machine, Stratfor, 2023-10-18
  88. ^ a b ASIO chief says there's 'no reason to dispute' Canada's claims of Indian involvement in murder of Hardeep Singh Nijjar Archived 19 October 2023 at the Wayback Machine, Jade Macmillan, ABC News Online, 2023-10-19
  89. ^ FBI Hosts Five Eyes Summit to Launch Drive to Secure Innovation in Response to Intelligence Threats, FBI press release, 2023-10-16
  90. ^ Richard McGregor (12 January 2019). "We need the Five Eyes spy network, but with oversight". Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 15 April 2023. Retrieved 15 April 2023.
  91. ^ MacAskill, Ewen (2 December 2013). "Revealed: Australian spy agency offered to share data about ordinary citizens". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 18 January 2014. Retrieved 18 January 2014.
  92. ^ Beaumont, Peter (22 June 2013). "NSA leaks: US and Britain team up on mass surveillance". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 31 December 2013. Retrieved 14 February 2014.
  93. ^ Watt, Nicholas (10 June 2013). "NSA 'offers intelligence to British counterparts to skirt UK law'". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 29 December 2013. Retrieved 19 January 2014.
  94. ^ Davidson, Helen (16 October 2013). "NSA files: Australian spies scooped up thousands of email accounts to help US". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 16 October 2013. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
  95. ^ Colin Freeze (20 December 2013). "Canada's spy agencies chastised for duping courts". The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on 25 December 2013. Retrieved 27 December 2013.
  96. ^ Ian MacLeod (20 December 2013). "CSIS asked foreign agencies to spy on Canadians, kept court in dark, judge says". Ottawa Citizen. Archived from the original on 22 December 2013. Retrieved 19 December 2015.
  97. ^ Stewart Bell (25 November 2013). "Court rebukes CSIS for secretly asking international allies to spy on Canadian terror suspects travelling abroad". National Post. Archived from the original on 27 December 2013. Retrieved 27 December 2013.
  98. ^ "Spy agencies silent over funding". Radio New Zealand. 24 February 2014. Archived from the original on 4 March 2014. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
  99. ^ MacLeod, Ian (9 January 2014). "European report calls for review of data sharing with Canada over spy concerns". Ottawa Citizen. Archived from the original on 21 February 2014. Retrieved 14 February 2014.
  100. ^ "REPORT on the US NSA surveillance programme, surveillance bodies in various Member States and their impact on EU citizens' fundamental rights and on transatlantic cooperation in Justice and Home Affairs". European Parliament. 21 February 2014. Archived from the original on 2 March 2024. Retrieved 21 July 2024.
  101. ^ "US PRISM: GCHQ's alleged interception of communications".
  102. ^ "Edward Snowden Interview: The NSA and Its Willing Helpers". Der Spiegel. 8 July 2013. Archived from the original on 6 July 2014. Retrieved 20 October 2013.
  103. ^ a b c Kelion, Leo (27 January 2014). "NSA-GCHQ Snowden leaks: A glossary of the key terms". BBC. Archived from the original on 27 January 2014. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
  104. ^ a b c Cremer, Justin. "Denmark is one of the NSA's '9-Eyes'". The Copenhagen Post. Archived from the original on 19 December 2013. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
  105. ^ יוסי מלמן, קירבה יוצאת דופן: על שיתוף הפעולה המודיעיני בין ישראל לארצות הברית, מעריב השבוע, 11 בספטמבר 2013 (Google translates as "Yossi Melman, an unusual closeness: about the intelligence cooperation between Israel and the United States, Maariv this week, September 11, 2013")
  106. ^ Dorling, Philip. "Singapore, South Korea revealed as Five Eyes spying partners". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 31 January 2014. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
  107. ^ "Japan lends its vision to 'Five Eyes' intelligence alliance". 10 January 2018. Archived from the original on 5 February 2019. Retrieved 6 February 2019.
  108. ^ Jauvert, Vincent (1 July 2015). "EXCLUSIF. Comment la France écoute (aussi) le monde". L'Obs. Archived from the original on 11 July 2015. Retrieved 10 July 2015.
  109. ^ Martin, Adam (2 November 2013). "NSA: Germany Was 'a Little Grumpy' About Being Left Out of Spying Club". New York. Archived from the original on 25 January 2014. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
  110. ^ David Sanger and Mark Mazzetti (24 October 2013), Allegation of U.S. Spying on Merkel Puts Obama at Crossroads Archived 2017-02-05 at the Wayback Machine The New York Times
  111. ^ Passenheim, Antje (22 November 2013). "US lawmakers push for German entrance to Five Eyes spy alliance". Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on 22 August 2020. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
  112. ^ "Five Eyes intel group ties up with Japan, Germany, France to counter China in cyberspace". Mainichi Daily News. 4 February 2019. Archived from the original on 7 February 2019. Retrieved 6 February 2019.
  113. ^ "Exclusive: Five Eyes intelligence alliance builds coalition to counter China". Reuters. 12 October 2018. Archived from the original on 7 February 2019. Retrieved 6 February 2019.
  114. ^ "'Five Eyes' Countries Eye Expanded Cooperation Amid North Korea Challenges". 28 January 2020. Archived from the original on 27 January 2020. Retrieved 28 January 2020.
  115. ^ Rensfeldt, Gunnar (11 December 2013). "Read the Snowden Documents From the NSA". Sveriges Television. Archived from the original on 9 February 2014. Retrieved 14 February 2014.
  116. ^ "The Five Eyes Fact Sheet - Privacy International". Archived from the original on 16 October 2017.
  117. ^ "NSA asked Japan to tap regionwide fiber-optic cables in 2011". The Japan Times. 27 October 2013. Archived from the original on 20 April 2014. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
  118. ^ "Maximator, a European spy pact to rival the Five Eyes, comes to light". The Economist. Retrieved 27 May 2020.

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Five_Eyes&oldid=1254927223"